The integration of chemical and biological control of the spotted alfalfa aphid: The
      integrated control concept

Smith, R; van den Bosch, R; Hagen, K; Stern, V

The integration of chemical and biological control of the spotted alfalfa aphid: The integrated control concept

Authors

Ray F. Smith
Robert van den Bosch
Kenneth S. Hagen
Vernon M. Stern

Authors Affiliations

Mr. Smith was Associate Professor of Entomology and Associate Entomologist in the Experiment Station, Berkeley; Mr. van den Bosch was Associate Entomologist in Biological Control) Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside; Mr. Hagen was Associate Entomologist in Biological Control in the Experiment Station, Berkeley; Mr. Stern was Assistant Entomologist in Entomology, Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside.

Publication Information

Hilgardia 29(2):81-101. DOI:10.3733/hilg.v29n02p081. October 1959.

PDF of full article, Cite this article

Abstract

Chemical and biological control are regarded as two main methods of suppressing insects and spider mites. These two methods are often thought of as alternatives in pest control. This is not necessarily so, for with adequate knowledge they can be made to augment one another.

Biological control is part of the permanent natural control of population density. Chemical controls involve only immediate and temporary decimation of localized populations and do not contribute to natural control. Natural control may keep a pest species from ever reaching the economic-injury level or it may permit economic outbreaks. The frequency of these pest outbreaks varies from a regular to an occasional occurrence depending upon the level of the general equilibrium position in relation to the economic injury level and the types of fluctuations about the general equilibrium position.

Integrated control combines and integrates biological and chemical controls. Chemical control is used as necessary and in a manner which is least disruptive to biological control. Integrated control may make use of naturally occurring biological control as well as modified or introduced biological control. Thought must be given to the biological control of not only the primary pest under consideration but also other potential pests.

Integrated control is most successful when sound economic thresholds have been established, rapid sampling methods have been devised, and selective insecticides are available. In some situations, the development of integrated control requires the augmentation of biological control through the introduction of additional natural enemies or modification of the environment.

Integrated control of the spotted alfalfa aphid has been achieved in California. Economic thresholds were established so that insecticides are applied only when damage is imminent. Native predators, introduced parasites, and entomogenous fungi now keep the spotted-alfalfa-aphid populations below the economic threshold for most of the year. When population counts in the individual field clearly demonstrate that a field is threatened, Systox is applied at low dosages. These chemical treatments give adequate control, but do not necessarily eradicate the aphids. Most of the predators and parasites survive and persist on the remaining aphids.

Literature Cited

Balch R. E. Control of forest insects. Ann. Rev. Ent. 1958. 3:449-68. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.en.03.010158.002313 [CrossRef]

Barnes M. M. Deciduous fruit insects and their control. Ann. Rev. Ent. 1959. 4:343-62. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.en.04.010159.002015 [CrossRef]

Bartlett B., Ewart W. H. Effect of parathion on parasites of Coccus hesperidum. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1951. 44:344-347.

Bartlett B. R., Ortega J. C. Relation between natural enemies and DDT-induced increases in frosted scale and other pests of walnuts. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1952. 45(5):783-85.

Bovey Paul. Les actions secondaires des traitements antiparasitaires sur les populations d’insectes et d’acariens nuisibles. Schweiz. Landw. Monatsh. 1955. 33(9/10):369-79.

Boyce A. M. The citrus red mite, Paratetranychus citri McG. in California, and its control. Jour Econ. Ent. 1936. 29(1):125-30.

Brown A. W. A. Insect control by chemicals. 1951. New York, N.Y.: John Wiley &; Sons, Inc. 817p.

Brown A. W. A. Spread of insecticide resistance. Adv. Pest Control Res. 1959. 2: New York, N.Y.: Interscience Publishers, Inc. p. 351-414.

Clausen C. P. Insect parasitism and biological control. Ent. Soc. Amer. Ann. 1936. 29:201-23.

Clausen C. P. Biological control of insect pests in the continental United States. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 1956. 1139:151

Crow J. F. Genetics of insect resistance to chemicals. Ann. Rev. Ent. 1957. 2:227-46. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.en.02.010157.001303 [CrossRef]

Debach P. The necessity for an ecological approach to pest control on citrus in California. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1951. 44(4):443-47.

Debach P. Validity of the insecticidal check method as a measure of the effectiveness of natural enemies of diaspine scale insects. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1955. 48(5):584-88.

Debach P. Application of ecological information to control of citrus pests in California. Tenth Internatl. Congr. Ent. Proc. 1958a. 3:185-97.

Debach P. Selective breeding to improve adaptations of parasitic insects. Tenth Internatl. Congr. Ent. Proc. 1958b. 4:759-67.

Debach P., Bartlett B. Effects of insecticides on biological control of insect pests of citrus. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1951. 44(3):372-83.

Debach P., Fleschner C. A., Dietrick E. J. A biological check method for evaluating the effectiveness of entomophagous insects. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1951. 44(5):763-66.

Debach P., Landi J. H., White E. B. Biological control of red scale. California Citrog. 1955. 40:254 271-72, 274-75.

Decker G. C. Don’t let the insects rule. Agr. Food Chem. 1958. 6(2):98-103. DOI: 10.1021/jf60084a603 [CrossRef]

Doutt R. L. Vice, virtue and the vedalia. Ent. Soc. Amer. Bul. 1958. 4(4):119-23.

Doutt R. L., Hagen K. S. Biological control measures applied against Pseudococcus maritimus on pears. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1950. 43(1):94-96.

Elton Charles S. The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. 1958. London; John Wiley &; Sons Inc., New York, N.Y: Methuen &; Co. Ltd. 181p.

Ewart W. H., Debach P. DDT for control of citrus thrips and citricola scale. California Citrog. 1947. 32:242-45.

Flanders S. E. Environmental resistance to the establishment of parasitic Hymenoptera. Ent. Soc. Amer. Ann. 1940. 33:245-53.

Flanders S. E. Dust as an inhibiting factor in the reproduction of insects. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1941. 34(3):470-1.

Flanders S. E. Coincident infestations of Aonidiella atrana and Coccus hesperidum, a result of ant activity. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1945. 38:711-12.

Fleschner C. A., Scriven G. T. Effects of soil-type and DDT on ovipositional response of Chrysopa californica (Coq.) on lemon trees. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1957. 50(2):221-22.

Forbes S. A. On some interactions of organisms. Illinois State Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 1880. 3:3-17.

Glen R. Factors that affect insect abundance. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1954. 47:398-405.

Griffiths J. T. Possibilities for better citrus insect control through the study of the ecological effects of spray programs. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1951. 44:464-68.

Grison P., Biliotti E. La signification agricole des “stations refuges” pour la faune entomologique. Acad. d’Agr. de France Compt. Rend. 1953. 39(2):106-9.

Hayes W. J. Agricultural chemicals and public health. U. S. Public Health Reports. 1954. 69(10):893-98. DOI: 10.2307/4588919 [CrossRef]

Hertzler J. O. The crisis in world population. 1956. Lincoln: Univ. Nebraska Press. 279p.

Holloway J. K., Roy Young T. Jr. The influence of fungicidal sprays on entomogenous fungi and on the purple scale in Florida. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1943. 36(3):453-57.

Hoskins W. M., Gordon H. T. Arthropod resistance to chemicals. Ann. Rev. Ent. 1956. 1:89-148. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.en.01.010156.000513 [CrossRef]

Huffaker C. B., Kennett C. E. Experimental studies on predation: Predation and cyclamen-mite populations on strawberries in California. Hilgardia. 1956. 26(4):191-222. DOI: 10.3733/hilg.v26n04p191 [CrossRef]

Jeppson L. R., Jesser M. J., Complin J. O. Timing of treatments for control of citrus red mite on orange trees in coastal districts of California. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1953. 46:10-14.

Klostermeyer E. C., Rasmussen W. B. The effect of soil insecticide treatments on mite populations and damage. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1953. 46:910-12.

Linsley E. G. Evaluation of certain acaricides and insecticides for effectiveness, residues, and influence on crop flavor. Hilgardia. 1956. 26(1):1-106. DOI: 10.3733/hilg.v26n01p001 [CrossRef]

Lord F. T. The influence of spray programs on the fauna of apple orchards in Nova Scotia: II. Oystershell scale, Lepidosaphis ulmi (L.). Canad. Ent. 1947. 79:196-209. DOI: 10.4039/Ent79196-11 [CrossRef]

Massee A. M. Problems arising from the use of insecticides: effect on the balance of animal populations 1954. pp.53-57. 6th Commonwealth Entomol. Conf. Rept. London, Eng land.

Metcalf R. L. Physiological basis for insect resistance. Physiol. Rev. 1955. 35:197-232.

Michelbacher A. E. Natural control of insect pests. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1954. 47(1):192-94.

Michelbacher A. E., Hitchcock S. Induced increase of soft scales on walnut. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1958. 51(4):427-31.

Michelbacher A. E., Middlekauff W. W. Control of the melon aphid in northern California. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1950. 43(4):444-47.

Painter R. H. Insect resistance in crop plants, xi + 520 pp. 1951. New York, N.Y: Illus. Macmillan Company.

Petty C. S. Organic phosphate insecticide poisoning; an agricultural occupational hazard. Louisiana St. Med. Soc. Jour. 1957. 109(5):158-64.

Pickett A. D. A critique on insect chemical control methods. Canad. Ent. 1949. 81(3):67-76. DOI: 10.4039/Ent8167-3 [CrossRef]

Pickett A. D., Patterson N. A. The influence of spray programs on the fauna of apple orchards in Nova Scotia. IV. A Review. Canad. Ent. 1953. 85(12):472-78. DOI: 10.4039/Ent85472-12 [CrossRef]

Pickett A. D., Putman W. L., Le Roux E. J. Progress in harmonizing biological and chemical control of orchard pests in eastern Canada. Tenth Internatl. Congr. Ent. Proc. 1958. 3:169-74.

Ripper W. E. Biological control as a supplement to chemical control of insect pests. Nature. 1944. 153:448-52. DOI: 10.1038/153448a0 [CrossRef]

Ripper W. E. Effect of pesticides on balance of arthropod populations. Ann. Rev. Ent. 1956. 1:403-38. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.en.01.010156.002155 [CrossRef]

Ripper W. E. The place of contracting organizations and professional supervision in the application of pest control methods. Tenth Internatl. Congr. Ent. Proc. 1958. 3:93-97.

Ripper W. E., Greenslade R. M., Hartley G. S. Selective insecticides and biological control. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1951. 44(4):448-59.

Robertson J. G. Changes in resistance to DDT in Macrocentrus ancylivorus Rohw. Canad. Jour. Zool. 1957. 35(5):629-633. DOI: 10.1139/z57-056 [CrossRef]

Sabrosky C. W. How many insects are there?. 1952. Washington, D.C: U. S. Dept. Agr. p. 1-7. in: Insects, 1952 Yearbook of Agriculture. 780

Schneider F. Beziehungen zwischen nützlingen und chemischer Schädlingsbekämpfung. 1955. 1955:18-29. Deutsche Gesell, f. Angw. Ent. Verhandl. (13^te Mitglied versamm.).

Simmonds F. J. The present status of biological control. Canad. Ent. 1956. 88(9):553-63. DOI: 10.4039/Ent88553-9 [CrossRef]

Smith H. S., Debach P. Artificial infestation of plants with pest insects as an aid in biological control. 1953. 4:255-59. Seventh Pacific Sci. Congr. Zoology (1949) Proc.

Smith Ray F. The spread of the spotted alfalfa aphid, Therioaphis maculata (Buckton), in California. Hilgardia. 1959. 28(21):647-91. DOI: 10.3733/hilg.v28n21p746 [CrossRef]

Smith R. F., Allen W. W. Insect control and the balance of nature. Sci. Amer. 1954. 190(6):38-42. DOI: 10.1038/scientificamerican0654-38 [CrossRef]

Solomon M. E. Insect population balance and chemical control of pests. Chem. and Indus. 1953. 1953:1143-47.

Steinhaus E. A. Possible use of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner as an aid in the biological control of the alfalfa caterpillar. Hilgardia. 1951. 20(18):359-81. DOI: 10.3733/hilg.v20n18p359 [CrossRef]

Steinhaus E. A. The effects of disease on insect populations. Hilgardia. 1954. 23(9):197-261. DOI: 10.3733/hilg.v23n09p197 [CrossRef]

Steinhaus E. A. Potentialities for microbial control of insects. Agr. Food Chem. 1956. 4(8):676-80. DOI: 10.1021/jf60066a604 [CrossRef]

Steinhaus E. A. Concerning the harmlessness of insect pathogens and the standardization of microbial control products. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1957. 50(6):715-20.

Steinhaus E. A., Thompson C. G. Preliminary field tests using a polyhedrosis virus in the control of the alfalfa caterpillar. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1949. 42(2):301-5.

Stern V. M., van den Bosch R. Field experiments on the effects of insecticides. Hilgardia. 1959. 29(2):103-30. DOI: 10.3733/hilg.v29n02p103 [CrossRef]

Strickland A. H. The assessment of insect pest density in relation to crop losses 1954. pp.78-83. 6th Commonwealth Ent. Conf. Rept., London, England.

Thomas W. L. Jr. Man’s role in changing the face of the earth. 1956. Chicago, Ill: Univ. Chicago Press. 1193p.

Thompson C. G., Steinhaus E. A. Further tests using a polyhedrosis virus to control the alfalfa caterpillar. Hilgardia. 1950. 19(14):411-45. DOI: 10.3733/hilg.v19n14p411 [CrossRef]

Trouvelot B. Le doryphore de la pomme de terre (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say) en Amerique de Nord. Ann. Epiphyt. (n.s.). 1936. 1:277-336.

Ullyett G. C. Mortality factors in populations of Plutella maculipennis (Tineidae: Lep.) and their relation to the problem of control. South African Dept. Agr. and Forestry Ent. Mem. 1947. 2(6):77-202.

Ullyett G. C. Insects, man and the environment. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1951. 44(4):459-64.

Upholt W. M. Evaluating hazards in pesticides use. Agr. Food Chem. 1955. 3(12):1000-6. DOI: 10.1021/jf60058a615 [CrossRef]

Wille J. E. Biological control of certain cotton insects and the application of new organic insecticides in Peru. Jour. Econ. Ent. 1951. 44:13-18.

Wigglesworth V. B. DDT and the balance of nature. Atlantic Monthly. 1945. 176(6):107-13.

Also in this issue:

To keep in touch

Sixth in an agricultural research centennial series: Beef cattle research at the University of California

Control of lemon trunk sprouts

Grapevine propagatlon: Improved field budding of grapevines using a modified cut and plastic tape

Labor management for seasonal farmworkers

Newly recognized Dying Arm Disease of grapevines

Controlling sweet corn smut

Alfalfa: Effects of seeding rates and Rhizobium inoculations

Leafhopper—natural vector of citrus stubborn disease?

The integration of chemical and biological control of the spotted alfalfa aphid: Field experiments on the effects of insecticides

The integration of chemical and biological control of the spotted alfalfa aphid: Impact of commercial insecticide treatments